What was zimbabwe

The colonial state responded to the economic challenges posed by the Second World War by adopting specific economic policies and strategies that resulted in a relatively rapid growth of the manufacturing sector.

However, this overall industrial expansion was limited in scale as the country only had industrial establishments employing a total of 20 black workers. A more fundamental development though was the large influx of white immigrants into the country in the immediate post war years, boosting the settler population and providing the economy with much needed skilled labour and a larger domestic market.

However, white immigration had the significant effect of fuelling inter-racial tensions which hastened the rise of militant African nationalism. An equally significant development was that the emerging manufacturing sector demanded a larger permanent urban based worker resevoir, hence policies that further pushed over Africans off the land into the cities.

The post Second World War era also witnessed a significant rise of an African middle class of educated African professionals such as teachers, nurses, lawyers and entrepreneurs. The tensions emerging from the interaction of these groups meant that the anti-colonial struggles took different and sometimes conflicting forms as each social grouping, namely alien and indigenous urban workers, the rural population and the emerging middle class, sought to advance its peculiar interests.

Similarly, differences also existed within the dominant white settler community. The whites who had been in the country for a long time wanted to maintain the status quo of exclusive white domination while the post war immigrants tended to have liberal political views and attitudes towards Africans whom they felt had to be accommodated to avert the growth and threat of militant African nationalism.

Accusations of partiality to Africans cost Garfield Todd the premiership in , effectively marking the end of liberal tendencies and the ascendancy of exclusionist right-wing policies that resulted in the formation of the Rhodesia Front in , the party that was to unilaterally declare independence in The early African initiatives for the amelioration of the colonial conditions have been described by some scholars as proto-nationalist as they were targeted at encouraging the colonial authorities to provide a more tolerant and accommodating socio-political and economic dispensation and not at overthrowing colonialism.

African political activity in this period manifested itself mainly in trade unionism. Mopore strikes were experienced throughout the country over these years. Other manifestations of African protest were the revival of the Southern Rhodesia Bantu Congress as the Southern Rhodesia African Native Congress, the Voters League and the creation of the African Methodist Church which was an African protest against both white religious and political domination.

Students also expressed their disgruntlement through strikes, like the famous Dadaya Mission strike in This was, however, overshadowed by the incidents in which several women were raped at Carter House in harari Township Mbare as punishment for breaking the strike, revealing the gender tensions in the urban African communities at the time. While black women participated with their male counterparts in the anti-colonial struggle, they also had to deal with patriarchy.

The birth of the City Youth League and subsequent nationalist parties at this time has to be seen in the context of the quickening pace of African nationalism in the post-Second World War era which resulted in the landmark and inspirational independence of Ghana in In February , the colonial government of Rhodesia declared a state of emergency and banned the ANC under the newly created Unlawful Organisations Act.

Party assets were confisticated while over political leaders were arrested. A landmark demand by the NDP was majority rule under universal suffrage. The party was however soon riddled with serious divisions of an ethnic nature resulting in its split in when a new party, the Zimbabwe African National Union ZANU , was formed under Ndabaningi Sithole.

In the meantime, the white community was also experiencing serious divisions. These moves were heavily criticized by conservative whites who were against any concessions to African nationalism. These conservatives were influenced by the need to protect their racial economic interests. Failing to gain independence from the British, Smith opted for a unilateral declaration of independence UDI on 11 November, , setting the Rhodesian white community on a collision course with the black African majority.

Social and economic developments in Rhodesia during the UDI period. This goal clashed with the long held aspirations of the generality of the white section of Rhodesian society to safeguard its privileged position. The political struggles of the period, often crossing the racial divide, were mainly about the social and economic interests of the various groups that formed the Rhodesian society.

Notwithstanding the efforts of the RF government to create a sense of nationhood among whites, Rhodesian white society was divided along class and economic interests, among other variables. As the conflict intensified, some members of the white population were, by the mids, preaching a different gospel from that of the RF, admitting that majority rule was inevitable.

At the same time, a number of Africans had, for economic and other reasons, defended white settler hegemony as soldiers in the Rhodesian army, Selous Scouts and policemen. The RF government put in place several measures as part of efforts to cushion white society in the wake of sanctions imposed on the country following the UDI.

Although these measures were, in the short term, successful, the success was not without its own costs. By the mids, a combination of factors, chief of which was the intensifying civil war, resulted in an economic decline that adversely affected the many facets of Rhodesian society.

It marks how the crisis in Rhodesia escalated as opposition to white rule became increasingly militant. The final phase of the war was littered many atrocities that culminated in all the contestants in the struggle agreeing on the peace modalities at the Lancaster House Conference in , which in turn resulted in the February general elections that ultimately led to independence on 18 April Then there was also the Anglo-Rhodesia Agreement.

The chapter argues that this was an attempt to ensure continued white rule while making token slow concessions to majority rule. Henceforth, the whole country was soon engulfed in serious fighting as ZIPRA also infiltrated the country from Zambia.

The crisis was not an exclusively Rhodesian affair. The neighbouring countries, notably Mozambique, South Africa and Zambia, and regional powers like Tanzania and Angola, continental powerhouse, Nigeria as well as Russia, China and the USA, among many others, all played significant roles in the crisis. This saw the emergence of several formations involving the nationalists during the UDI period. This plethora of formations is indicative of the fragmented nature of the nationalist camp in their fight against the Smith regime.

Manifestations of the disunity are also reflected in the split that rocked ZAPU in , the Nhari Rebellion against the ZANU leadership from late and the events surrounding the assassination of Chitepo in , among others. The escalating crisis is further highlighted by the manner in which the war became bloodier as the years went by. Serious atrocities were perpetrated by both sides as the war escalated.

Some of these brutalities involved the covert poisoning of guerrilla sources of water and food supplies. Civilians were not spared either. Equally, the nationalist armies attacked white farmers in their isolated homesteads, assaulted centres of colonial power and blew up infrastructure. Text on this page is printable and can be used according to our Terms of Service.

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Media If a media asset is downloadable, a download button appears in the corner of the media viewer. Text Text on this page is printable and can be used according to our Terms of Service. It was one of the two successor states to the Kingdom of Zimbabwe the other being the Mutapa Kingdom.

As a result of the internal strife and succession struggles the Torwa fled southwards and settled in Guruhuswa region. They settled in around the capital city of Khami.

Khami, much like Great Zimbabwe, would emerge as a centre of trade where gold and ivory was traded for glass beads, china and other goods from Asia and Europe. The leadership structure of the Torwa was that any descendant of the King could succeed to the throne. This created a an unstable ruling system, and in the Torwa split in two during a civil war. The split caused the capital of Khami to be abandoned, and a new capital was established in Danangombe. At the end of the between and a cattle owner in the Mutapa Kingdom, Changamire Dombo, put together an army and rebelled against the Mwami Mutapa King of Mutapa.

Dombo would attack Portuguese merchants and raid the Mutapa Kingdom as well. He then set up a Kingdom in the area previously controlled by the Torwa dynasty who were severly weakened by internal conflict , and made the recently established Danangombe the capital of the new Rozvi Kingdom. With the establishment of his Kingdom Changamire Dombo moved his army north and counqured the central parts of the Mutapa Kingdom, reducing the latter to a small chieftancy west of Tete.

In and in he won a victory against the Portuguese in the battle of Mahungwe and the battle of Dambarare, when the colonial power attempted to take control of gold mines in the interior of Zimbabwe.

By , Changamire Dombo's new Kingdom had replaced the Mutapa as the supreme kingdom in the region. After the death of Changamire Dombo that same year his successors would take up the title Mambo. The Rozvi Kingdom at its greatest extent. Source: S. Page The succession of the Rozvi Kingdom was organised in a manner so that the eldest brother to the King would become the next Mambo. Although there were exceptions to the rule, Changamire Dombo was for example succeeded by his son.

It is thought that the strict guidelines for succession laws were one of the reasons why the Rozvi Kingdom had a greater internal stability than the Torwa dynasty and Mutapa Kingdom which were both riddled with succession struggles. The Mambo had a lot of authority, but he would also have to rule with the guidance and approval of his council, the Dare. In addition to this there existed a hereditary duty of the dynasty of Tambare, a noble family of settling electing a ruler when there was no clear heir, and to collect tribute.

The Tambare would be a check on both the excesses and power abuses of the Kings. A prominent factor in the success of the Rozvi Kingdom was the establishment of a large and well organised standing army. The army could muster up thousands of men, and could sustain heavy losses while still continuing to be operational. The army would be organised into different regiments, each with their own commander.

The Rozvi could field an array of different weapons such as spears, axes, clubs, bows, and sometimes guns. The army fought in formations which resembled those of Shaka Zulu, and they are said to have favoured close combat. The army made sure all vassal chiefs paid tribute and stayed loyal. Through collusion with religious authorities called Mwari cults the Kings of Rozvi kept control of their population and gained legitimacy through being seen as blessed by the gods. By the early s the Rozvi Kingdom had been severely weakened.

The conflicts, migrations and political upheaval known as the Mfecane was destabilising the whole region at the time and the Rozvi Kingdom was not ready to withstand the external pressures. By this time the Mwari cult and the royal dynasty were in conflict, which threatened the legitimacy of the King, and civil wars within the dynasty itself had depleted the once powerful Rozwi military. There were several different peoples who migrated through Rozwi lands. Last of the migrating peoples to the area was the Ndebele people who arrived in under the leadership of Gundwane.

They settled in the south-western parts of present-day Zimbabwe. The Rozwi and the Ndebele were intermittently in conflict, but both Kingdoms existed for another 20 years. Many Shona people from the Rozwi Kingdom would settle in Ndebele villages over these years.

The struggle between the Ndebele and Rozwi was both militaristic and economic. The Ndebele had raided much cattle since they had settled in the area and the Rozwi had lost most of their cattle due the many raids in the early s.

The Rozwi needed cattle and the Ndebele needed people. As a result of this many young people from the Rozwi Kingdom moved to Ndebele lands and came to work for them in exchange for cattle. This exchange of cattle and people helped spread the Ndebele influence in the area. By this point the Rozwi ruling dynasty had retreated to the hills in the east, and they could not hold on to power long. The only choice was to fight back. The Rozwi dynasty attacked the Ndebele and a struggle ensued from to The war was a disaster for the Rozwi and in they surrendered to the Ndebele.

They migrated into present-day Zimbabwe during the Mfecane around The first leader of the Ndebele in Zimbabwe was Gundwane, but his dynasty did not last long.

The Ndebele was plagued by infighting after his death which halted their expansion in the s. After the death of Gundwane, another group of Ndebele entered the area under Mzilikazi Khumalo, who would quickly seize power over the local Ndebele people. From to was a period in which the Ndebele focused on nation building and consolidating previous gains. This process was led by Mzilikazi and reached the Ndebele in Zimbabwe by the s.

Mzilikazi is thought to have been born around in contemporary South Africa. He was the leader of the Khumalo clan and served under Shaka Zulu until they had a falling out at around He fled north after this and came to contemporary Zimbabwe where he seized power over the Ndebele there from Gundawe in Mzilikazi then began to conquer the various peoples and villages surrounding his Kingdom.

Despite coming as conquerors and raiders the Ndebele would adopt many of the local customs and many of the local people already living in the area would assimilate into Ndebele villages. Some did this as explained above through the economic pressure due to a lack of cattle outside of the Ndebele state. One of the traditions which was the Ndebele took on was the Mwari cult.

By the once powerful Rozwi Kingdom had completely surrendered to the Ndebele. Mzilikazi died in and in the succession crisis from which followed his son Lobengula became the new King. Some historians argue that Lobengula needed the Mwari cult and the legitimacy they provided for his ascension to power. In the Ndebele was a consolidated state and at the height of their power. He needed this legitimacy as he did not have the legitimacy as a conqueror which his father enjoyed.

The power of the Ndebele Kings were also reliant on the distribution of cattle and materials in exchange for services. This created a complex client-patron relationship between the people and the ruling elite. Land was not owned by anyone, but simply distributed by the King to anyone who needed it at the time.

Cattle on the other hand was guided by two modes of ownership, one was communal and one was private. King Lobengula son of Mzilikazi. The late 's was a time when the European colonial powers were increasing their efforts to conquer the African continent. By during the Berlin Conference European leaders had settled which Eurpoean nations would control what parts of Africa and the scramble for Africa had begun. There was of course a difference between drawing borders on a map and actually controlling the area.

The British begun their incursions into the area in the s, but the Portuguese had made several attempts to conquer resources inland since the s.

In exchange for wealth and arms, Lobengula approved several franchises to the British. The most far reaching one was the Rudd concession giving Cecil John Rhodes exclusive mineral rights in much of the lands east of his main territory. Rhodes used this concession to obtain a royal charter a formal document issued by the British monarch granting him rights and power to form the British South African Company, in Lobengula thought that the arms and ammunition he received from the concession would help him repel the European invaders.

Not only was Lobengula pressured by British incursions however, but the Portuguese was also giving a large amount of fire arms to smaller chiefs and kings in the area to undermine his authority.

The large amount of fire arms made some of the smaller vassal chiefs of the Ndebele Kingdom more defiant. In June , Lobengula sent warriors down to Fort Victoria now Masvingo to put down the rebellion led by a Shona chief in the area who had refused to pay tribute. In previous years the King of Ndebele had been cautious to not attack any of the white colonisers in the past, but the colonial authorities had for the previous three years looked for an excuse to begin a full scale war with the Ndebele.

With the punitive raid they had that excuse. The colonial authorities claimed that they were in command of the area and any disputes should be settled by them.

The Ndebele were met by soldiers from Fort Victoria who demanded that they left, the Ndebele leadership refused, and a struggle which left an unknown number of casualties ensued. This was the beginning of the First Matabele War. In October the British colonialists attacked the Ndebele forces who was weakened since many of their soldiers had been sent off to attack King Lewanika of Barotseland, who was a puppet of the British authorities.

The Ndebele could not hold back the colonial conquerors who advanced through their lands, pillaging, looting and burning as they went. The aim of the British colonial forces was to conquer the capital of the Ndebele Kingdom, called Bulawayo, and to kill or kidnap the King. The idea was that if they could capture the King then he would have to surrender the Kingdom. Former vice-president Emmerson Mnangagwa becomes president.

Announces plans to stabilise economy and encourage foreign investment. Image source, Getty Images. Zimbabwe was colonised by Cecil John Rhodes centre in the late s. The country was named Southern Rhodesia after him.

European settlers. White minority leader Ian Smith declared independence from Britain. Smith declares independence. Many people took up arms against the white minority government. The signing of the Lancaster House agreement led to independence.